Category: research

Redemption through abstention: The sex-negative antinatalism of Norbert Grabowsky (1861–1922)

Lenny1 Comment

Hello everyone.

If you are interested in the history of antinatalism, perhaps you have already seen our new video about Kurnig, the first modern antinatalist, who, among other things, published a number of books and pamphlets on antinatalism in German and French in the late 19th and very early 20th century. In that video Karim Akerma and I discuss Kurnig’s life, work, and legacy as well as the literary scenes he moved in, and I also present some of my more recent findings. As Dr. Akerma pointed out, it is important to note that Kurnig was not a “singularity”, he did not write in a literary or intellectual vacuum. Sure, Kurnig may have been the most active and arguably the most adamant of his kind, but there were more people who held similar beliefs: Marie Huot was mentioned already, but today I want to introduce you to another very obscure – and perhaps even more bizarre – writer and thinker. During my research on Kurnig there was one name in particular that popped up quite frequently, and often in the same breath as Kurnig: Norbert Grabowsky.

Grabowsky’s life and work

Norbert Grabowsky was born in January 1861 in Ostrów Wielkopolski. He studied medicine and eventually became a doctor but did not obtain a health insurance license, and despite his profession he found himself in financial trouble throughout much of his life. In addition to his day job, he published a number of short books in which he laid out his philosophy. Grabowsky died in 1922 in Leipzig.

Like Kurnig, Grabowsky published in the publishing house of Max Spohr in Leipzig – in fact, Grabowsky’s 1894 work Die verkehrte Geschlechtsempfindung oder die mannmännliche und weibweibliche Liebe (“Inverted Sexual Feeling or Man-Manly and Woman-Womanly Love”) got his publisher into quite a bit of legal trouble. Both Kurnig’s and Grabowsky’s works were actively read and discussed by people in the emerging science of sexology, as both of them held rather unconventional views on human sexuality. As you know, Kurnig was a staunch proponent of voluntary non-procreation (or “natal abstinence”), but Grabowsky went one step further and advocated for complete sexual abstinence – an even more radical and outspoken “apostle of virginity” than Philipp Mainländer himself. What these three gentlemen had it common is that all of them greatly admired and were strongly inspired by Arthur Schopenhauer’s philosophical pessimism and shared his pessimistic diagnosis of life on Earth but departed from, or even outright rejected, Schopenhauer’s metaphysics.

Now, Grabowsky was strongly opposed to all forms of sexual intercourse for a variety of odd reasons – but, among other things, he was very explicit about his antinatalism, as he viewed sexual reproduction as “perpetuating the misery of existence by imposing it on others” (Fortpflanzung des Daseinselends auf Andere) and as a great moral wrong that is to be avoided. Grabowsky also considered all sexual orientations and preferences that do not result in procreation, especially homosexuality, to be “subconscious struggles against procreation” and even attempted to demonstrate that “normal” heterosexual intercourse is no less “perverse”, “disgusting”, and reprehensible than those already widely condemned deviant sexual practices – which he, of course, condemned, too, but for other reasons, since he believed that all kinds of sexual and sensual love severely damaged one’s individual integrity and prevented mankind from attaining true cognition and higher levels of spirituality (Vergeistigung), which can only be achieved through a total rejection of sex. These ideas bring Grabowsky quite close to Otto Weininger (1880–1903), who was familiar with Grabowsky’s work and also referred to it in his infamous book Sex and Character, as well as to Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) and his Kreutzer Sonata – another work frequently compared to Grabowsky’s in early sexological literature. Grabowsky declared sex to be “the greatest enemy of our destiny”, and for this reason he was not too fond of the concurring Neo-Malthusian movement in France, which he felt did not address the core of the issue at hand, and he feared that recent developments in contraception will lead to even more sexual intercourse – and greater moral corruption – overall.

Grabowsky insisted that the social question is primarily a sexual question. Not only will sexual abstinence bring about moral progress, but it will also spare countless unborn beings from coming into existence and avoid a “procreative Ponzi scheme” (as David Benatar would put it). He writes:

How the course of human history has unfolded so far has been a matter of necessity. But it is also a necessity that humanity increasingly reaches greater moral and spiritual development. And the social question will also be brought ever closer to its solution, wars will also cease more and more (the abolition of wars is the solution to the social question of the social question among the individual nations). The complete solution to the social question will only be achieved with the extinction of mankind. [Enthaltsamkeit …, p. 48.]

Unlike Kurnig and many other pessimists, however, Grabowsky strongly believed in a life after death, and that earthly hardships will eventually be rewarded with heavenly bliss in the afterlife because, according to Grabowsky, the total amount of happiness in the world will always remain constant:

Since every mature person must give up hope of earthly happiness (he can only acquire peace of mind in the prospect of the hereafter), it is not justifiable for him to leave behind descendants of his misery in this sad world. It is enough that I have suffered. Why do I need to pass on my suffering to others? I want to be good and take up my cross alone, without passing it on to other shoulders. And that is the general reason for my decision of permanent sexual abstinence. […]

The probability of continued existence already exists because the earthly pain imposed on us through no fault of our own demands with compelling necessity a compensation for ourselves, which, however, cannot be found in this life. However, this probability of continued existence can only lead us to maintain our own existence despite the misery of our existence. But the mature person may not, on the basis of continued existence, grant himself the right to bring offspring into this world at will. Just as little as he may inflict an evil on anyone else with the excuse that fate will direct it for the best. [Enthaltsamkeit …, p. 8, 15.]

In addition to his work outlining his opposition to procreation, sex and sensual love, Grabowsky also wrote about – and against – all kinds of things, including diatribes against mainstream philosophy, music (of all things), vegetarianism, tobacco and alcohol. Nonetheless, he considered himself to be a brilliant thinker on par with Spinoza, Kant and Schopenhauer, who perfected what these philosophers failed to do and who, after some five millennia, finally solved the greatest mysteries of the world – Grabowsky even claimed that his contributions “surpassed the discoveries of Copernicus and Columbus”. Unsurprisingly, he was deeply outraged at the public mostly ignored his work and did not honour his “groundbreaking achievements”, which he felt should have brought him great fame and glory instead. He complained he did not have a single friend or supporter in the world, and significant portions of his work consist of bitter complaints about his very frustrating personal situation as a destitute physician and writer and as a misunderstood genius and saviour of humanity who is constantly wresting with his sexual demons.

Now, what do you make of this? Norbert Grabowsky was definitely an odd character and an unorthodox thinker whose ideas never found favour and are completely forgotten today. Was he just an extreme case of “sour grapes”? Or can we find some traces of brilliance in his work, too? I listed and linked some of his books below so you can read it for yourselves, if you are interested, and draw your own conclusions.

a selection of Norbert Grabowsky’s books

  • Volksbuch über die Kunst glücklich zu werden. Würzburg: Verlag von L. Kreßner’s Buchhandlung 1888. 80 (+ 2) pp. (MDZ = Google Books)
  • Das Elend des ärztlichen Berufes. Zugleich eine Warnung für alle, die das medizinische Studium ergreifen wollen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1893. 25 (+ 7) pp. (MDZ = Google Books)
  • Die geschlechtliche Enthaltsamkeit als sittliche Forderung und als Vorbeugungsmittel sozialen Elends. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1894. 34 pp. (Internet Archive)
    • reissue: Enthaltsamkeit und die ausserordentliche Bedeutung des sittlich-enthaltsamen Lebens für unser eignes Wohl wie das der Allgemeinheit. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1901. 56 pp. (HathiTrust = Google Books = Internet Archive)
  • Geistige Liebe und das Wesen des geistigen Lebens enthüllt durch das Wesen der Liebe. Ein Reformbuch des Geistes- und Liebeslebens der Menschheit. Dritte verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1913. 72 (+ VIII) pp. (Internet Archive)
  • Die verkehrte Geschlechtsempfindung oder die mannmännliche und weibweibliche Liebe. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1894. 45 (+ 3) pp. (MDZ = Google Books)
  • Mein Leben und Wirken als Anwalt der Enthaltsamkeit und Vergeistigung. Leipzig: Verlag von Dr. Grabowsky’s Literarisch-wissenschaftlichem Jahrbuch, Theodor Thomas 1895. 16 (+ 2) pp. (MDZ)
  • Das Elend der Menschheit, sein eigentlicher Grund und Zweck. Zum ersten Male aufgehellt. Ein Trostbuch für alle, die im Elend sind. Zugleich ein unentbehrliches Handbuch für jeden, der sich mit den sozialen Fragen beschäftigt. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 41 pp. (Internet Archive)
  • Kant, Schopenhauer und Dr. Grabowsky oder Wie das deutsche Volk dem Philosophen dankt, der vollendet hat, was Kant und Schopenhauer vergebens erstrebten. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 24 + IV pp. (HathiTrust = Google Books)
  • Die mannweibliche Natur des Menschen mit Berücksichtigung des psychosexuellen Hermaphroditismus. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 44 (+ 5) pp. (MDZ = Google Books)
    • Dutch translation: De Man-Vrouwelijke Natuur des Menschen in verband met Psycho-sexueel Hermaphroditismus. Amsterdam: Bauer & Co 1902. 56 pp. (Delpher)
  • Wider die Musik! Die gegenwärtige Musiksucht und ihre unheilvollen Wirkungen. Zugleich ein Nachweis der geringwertigen oder ganz mangelnden Bedeutung, welche die Musik als Kunst wie als bildendes Element in Anspruch nehmen kann. Ein Buch, geschrieben zum Zwecke wahrer Bildung und Gesittung und bestimmt für alle Kreise des Volkes. Zweite verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 64 pp. (Internet Archive)
  • Lebensfrohsinn. Ein Handbüchlein für Lebensverdrossene. Zugleich ein Führer im Kampfe wider die sog. Nervosität. Dritte umgearbeitete Auflage des „Handbuch für Nervenleidende usw.“ Leipzig: Max Spohr 1907. 49 + III pp. (Google Books)
  • Die Widersinnigkeit und Schädlichkeit des Vegetarismus. Zugleich ein Leitfaden, von der vegetarischen Reform hinweg zur wahren Menschheitsreform zu gelangen. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 34 pp. (Internet Archive)
  • Wider den Tabak! Das Tabakrauchen und sein Einfluss auf die körperliche und geistige Entartung der modernen Menschheit. Zugleich mit positiven Vorschlägen, wie man es anfangen soll, sich der Tabakleidenschaft zu entreißen. Zweite und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 44 + IV pp. (HathiTrust = Google Books)
  • Kants Grundirrtümer in seiner Kritik der reinen Vernunft und die Reformationen des geistigen Innenlebens der Menschheit, beruhend auf Dr. Norbert Grabowsky’s Erkenntnislehren. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1907. 115 + V pp. (Google Books | Internet Archive)

The vast majority of Grabowsky’s work is not available online. A complete list of Grabowsky’s books published by Max Spohr can be found in Mark Lehmstedt: Bücher für das »dritte Geschlecht«. Der Max Spohr Verlag in Leipzig. Verlagsgeschichte und Bibliographie (1881–1941). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag 2002 (Veröffentlichungen des Leipziger Arbeitskreises zur Geschichte des Buchwesens / Schriften und Zeugnisse zur Buchgeschichte Bd. 14).

Note: Unfortunately, I do not have access to Lehmstedt’s tremendously useful book (which I had already used for my Kurnig research) right now but I may update this post later with more information about Grabowsky’s biography and bibliography.

Update: In the meantime I had access to the aforementioned book by Mark Lehmstedt, which includes a meticulously compiled complete bibliography of all books published by Max Spohr. It turns out that, with 49 (!) publications, Norbert Grabowsky was this publishing house’s most prolific writer. Below you can find a list of these, taken from Lehmstedt 2002: 185, 190–191, 198–199, 203–204, 209–211, 216, 221, 227–228, 231–232, 237, 240, 243, 245, 256, 264, 265–266, 269, 280, 56 (n. 2).

  • [B 58] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Wissenschaft vom Leben nach dem Tode. 2. [Titel?-] Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1892. 80 S. 1,25 M.
  • [B 84] Grabowsky, Norbert: Das Elend des ärztlichen Berufes. Zugleich eine Warnung für alle, die das medizinische Studium ergreifen wollen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1893. 25, [7] S. 8°. 0,60 M.
  • [B 85] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die geschlechtliche Enthaltsamkeit als sittliche Forderung und als Vorbeugungsmittel sozialen Elends. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1893. III, 30 S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Enthaltsamkeit und die ausserordentliche Bedeutung des sittlich-enthaltsamen Lebens für unser eignes Wohl wie das der Allgemeinheit. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1901. 54, [2] S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Enthaltsamkeit. Die Bekämpfung des niederen Sinnentriebes zugunsten höher-geistigen Lebens. 3. verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1910. 64 S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
  • [B 86] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Geschlechtsliebe – der Fluch des Menschentums und ihre Bekämpfung. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1893. 37 S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Geistige Liebe und das Wesen des geistigen Lebens enthüllt durch das Wesen der Liebe. Ein Reformbuch des Geistes- und Liebeslebens der Menschheit. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage des Werkes: »Fluch des Menschentums etc.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 63, [1] S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [dass.] Dritte verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1913. 71, [1], VIII S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
  • [B 87] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Philosophie der Liebe. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1893. 40, [8] S. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Inneres Leben das höhere Leben, die höhere Liebe des Menschen. Ein Buch geistiger Neuerweckung für die Menschheit. 2. umgearbeitete Auflage von »Die Philosophie der Liebe«. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1906. IV, 109 S. 8°. 1,50 M.
  • [B 116] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die verkehrte Geschlechtsempfindung oder die mannmännliche und weibweibliche Liebe. Von Dr. med. Norbert Grabowsky prakt. Arzt. Verfasser von: »Die geschlechtliche Enthaltsamkeit«[,] »Die Geschlechtsliebe und ihre Bekämpfung«[,] »Die Philosophie der Liebe« u.s.w. Mit dem Portrait des Verfassers. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1894. 45, [3] S. mit 1 Bildnis (Fotografie, mit Unterschrift: Norbert Grabowsky Dr. med.) gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [dass.] 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1897. 44 [oder: 52?] S. mit 1 Bildnis, gr. 8°. 1,20 M.
    • [dass.] 3. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1899. 54 S. gr. 8°. 1,20 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Verkehrte Sinnesneigung. Eine wissenschaftliche Studie. Vierte, verbesserte Auflage von »Die verkehrte Geschlechtsempfindung etc.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1904. 41, VII S. 8°. 0,75 M.
  • [B 118] Grabowsky, Norbert: Sollen wir heiraten? Ernste Thatsachen und Gedanken zur Anbahnung einer neuen Aera im Leben der Menschheit. Zweite verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig; Max Spohr 1894. 138 S. gr. 8°. 2,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Der ideale Mensch und sein Wesen. Grundlagen zur Anbahnung eines Neuaufschwungs des Ideallebens der Menschheit. Dritte, umgearbeitete Auflage von »Sollen wir heiraten?« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1905. 122, I–VI S. 8°. 1,50 M, Lw. 2,00 M.
    • [zuerst:] Sollen wir heirathen? Ein lehrreich Büchlein für Jedermann. Würzburg: Kreßner 1885. 51 S. 16°. –
      • [dass.] Würzburg; Kreßner 1887. 51 S. 16°. 1,00 M.
  • [B 119] Grabowsky, Norbert: Mein Leben und Wirken als Anwalt der Enthaltsamkeit und Vergeistigung. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1894. 16 S. 8°. 0,30 M. [Aus: Grabowsky, Literarisch-wissenschaftliches Jahrbuch 1894]
  • [B 141] Grabowsky, Norbert: Dr. Norbert Grabowsky und seine reformatorische Bedeutung für die Menschheit. Leipzig 1895. 24 S. Lex.-8°. 0,40 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Lehren und Entdeckungen sowie ihre reformatorische Bedeutung für Religion und Wissenschaft. Zweite, umgearbeitete und erheblich vermehrte Auflage von »Reformatorische Bedeutung etc.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1904. 90, VI S. gr. 8°. Lw. 1,20 M.
  • [B 142] Grabowsky, Norbert: Katechismus des ehelosen Standes. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1895. 16 S. gr. 8°. 0,40 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Der ehelose Stand in seinen idealen Seiten und Aufgaben. 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage der Schrift »Katechismus des ehelosen Standes«. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1903. 29 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 143] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Magenleiden und ihre Behandlung ohne giftige Arzneimittel. Ein praktischer Leitfaden für alle Magenkranken. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1895. 15 S. 4°. 0,40 M.
    • [dass.] Die Magenleiden und ihre Behandlung. Ein praktischer Leitfaden für alle Magenkranken. Zweite verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1901. 23, [1] S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 144] Grabowsky, Norbert: Rheumatismus und Gicht und ihre Behandlung ohne giftige Arzneimittel. Ein praktischer Leitfaden für jeden Rheumatismus- und Gichtkranken. Leipzig: [Max Spohr?] 1895.111, 11 S. gr. 8°. 0,40 M.
  • [B 169] Grabowsky, Norbert: Das Elend der Menschheit, sein eigentlicher Grund und Zweck. Zum ersten Male aufgehellt. Ein Trostbuch für alle, die im Elend sind. Zugleich ein unentbehrliches Handbuch für jeden, der sich mit den sozialen Fragen beschäftigt. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 41 S. gr. 8°. 0,80 M.
  • [B 170] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Ernährung des Menschen in gesunden und kranken Tagen. Ein Handbuch der Diätetik für Laien und Aerzte auf Grundlage der bahnbrechenden diätetischen Entdeckungen des Autors. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 60 S. gr. 8°. 1,20 M.
  • [B 171] Grabowsky, Norbert: Kant, Schopenhauer und Dr. Grabowsky, oder Wie das Deutsche Volk dem Philosophen dankt, der vollendet hat, was Kant und Schopenhauer vergebens erstrebten. [Motto.] Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 24, IV S. gr. 8°. 0,40 M.
    • [dass.] Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1901. 31, [1] S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die Mitwelt und die vom Verfasser begründete Geistesreformation. Ein Weckruf an die Zeitgenossen. 3. verbesserte Auflage von »Kant, Schopenhauer und Dr. Grabowsky usw.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1907. 49 S. gr. 8°. 0,75 M, kart. 1.00 M.
  • [B 172] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die mannweibliche Natur des Menschen mit Berücksichtigung des psychosexueilen Hermaphroditismus. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 44, [4] S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die männlich-weibliche Natur der Menschenseele. 2. umgearbeitete Auflage von »Die mannweibliche Natur des Menschen usw.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1906. 54, VI S. 8°. 1,00 M.
  • [B 173] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Lösung der Welträtsel. Ein Reformbuch aller Religion, Wissenschaft und Kunst, enthaltend das Wichtigste der bahnbrechenden, für die Zukunft der Menschheit bedeutungsvollsten geistigen Entdeckungen des Verfassers. Den Denkenden aller Stände gewidmet. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1896. 32, IV S. gr. 8°. 0,60 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die Lösung der Welträtsel. Ein Reformbuch aller Religion, Wissenschaft und Kunst. Den Denkenden aller Stände gewidmet. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1901. 48 S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die Rätsel vom Grund und Zweck unseres Lebens und ihre Aufhellung durch das innere Leben oder die höhere Liebe. 3. verbesserte Auflage von »Die Lösung der Welträtsel«. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1907. III, 65, III S. gr. 8°. 1.00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die Wirklichkeit des Uebersinnlichen und wie daraus die Aufhellung der Geheimnisse des Daseins hervorgeht. Vierte umgearbeitete Auflage des Werkes: Die Rätsel von Grund und Zweck unseres Lebens und ihre Aufhellung. (früher: Die Lösung der Welträtsel). Leipzig: Max Spohr 1915. VII, 65, [1] S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
  • [B 199] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Zukunftsreligion und Zukunftswissenschaft auf Grundlage der Emanzipation des Mannes vom Weibe. Zugleich ein unentbehrliches Handbuch für alle jene, die sich mit den Fragen der Emanzipation des Weibes vom Manne beschäftigen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1897. 84, [4] S. gr. 8°. 1,50 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Der Weg zur Geistesvervollkommnung auf Grundlage der Emanzipation des Mannes vom Weibe. Zugleich ein unentbehrliches Handbuch für alle jene, die sich mit den Fragen der Emanzipation des Weibes vom Manne beschäftigen. 2. [Titel-] Ausgabe von »Zukunftsreligion und Zukunftswissenschaft etc.« Leipzig: Max Spohr [1901, vordatiert auf] 1902. 84 S. gr. 8°. 1,20 M.
  • [B 226] Grabowsky, Norbert: Fünf Jahrtausende Sehnsucht nach Erkenntnis und ihre endliche Erfüllung in der Gegenwart. Eine kurze Erläuterung der bedeutsamen Entdeckungen des Autors nebst biographischen Notizen sowie Schilderung der Aufnahme, die des Autors Lehren bis jetzt in Deutschland gefunden. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1898. 45 S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Fünf Jahrtausende Sehnsucht nach Erkenntnis der grossen Daseinsrätselfragen und die Erfüllung in der Gegenwart. Eine Erläuterung der bahnbrechenden Entdeckungen des Autors nebst biographischen Notizen, sowie Schilderung der Aufnahme, die seinen Lehren bis jetzt zu Teil geworden. 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1903. 105, VII S. 8°. 1,20 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Fünf Jahrtausende Sehnsucht nach Erkenntnis und wie die Gegenwart hier Erfüllung bringt. Eine Erläuterung der Erkenntnisentdeckungen des Verfassers. Mit einem Anhang, enthaltend biographische Notizen über den Verfasser, sowie Schilderung der Aufnahme, die seinen Lehren bis jetzt zuteil ward. Volkstümlich dargestellt. 3. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1908. 140, [5] S. gr. 8°. 2,25 M, Lw. 2,75 M.
  • [B 227] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Bestimmung und Vorbereitung des Menschen für das Leben nach dem Tode. Ein Handbuch praktischer Religion oder wahrer menschlicher Vervollkommnung ohne Grundlage confessioneller Dogmen. Zweite vollständig umgearbeitete Auflage des Werkes »Die Bestimmung des Menschen«. Mit dem Portrait des Verfassers. Leipzig: Max Spohr [1898, vordatiert auf:] 1899. 80, [8] S. mit 1 Bildnis, gr. 8°. 1,20 M.
    • [dass.] 3. verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1903. 80 S. mit 1 Bildnis, gr. 8°. 1,20 M, Lw. 1,70 M.
    • [dass.] 4. umgearbeitete Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1912. XVI, [2], 140, [4] S. gr. 8°. 2,50 M.
    • [zuerst:] Die Bestimmung des Menschen. Ein Mahnruf zur Wiedererweckung idealen Strebens. Berlin: Carl Duncker 1886. 112 S. 8°.
  • [B 252] Grabowsky, Norbert: Wider die Musik! Die gegenwärtige Musiksucht und ihre unheilvollen Wirkungen. Zugleich ein Nachweis der geringwertigen oder ganz mangelnden Bedeutung, welche die Musik als Kunst wie als bildendes Element in Anspruch nehmen kann. Ein Buch, geschrieben zum Zwecke wahrer Bildung und Gesittung und bestimmt für alle Kreise des Volkes. Leipzig: Max Spohr [1899, vordatiert auf] 1900. 68 S. mit 1 Abbildung, gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [dass.] Zweite verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 62, [1] S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M,Lw. 1,50 M.
  • [B 253] Grabowsky, Norbert: Handbuch für Nervenleidende sowie geistig Ueberanstrengte. Ein unentbehrlicher Ratgeber auf Grund der eigenartigen, selbständig in vielseitiger Erfahrung erprobten Behandlungsweise des Verfassers. Zugleich eine kurze Seelengesundheitslehre. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1899. 20 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [dass.] 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 36 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Lebensfrohsinn. Ein Handbüchlein für Lebensverdrossene. Zugleich ein Führer im Kampfe wider die sog. Nervosität. Dritte umgearbeitete Auflage des »Handbuch für Nervenleidende usw.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1907. 49, III S. 8°. 0,75 M.
  • [B 254] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Widersinnigkeit und Schädlichkeit des Vegetarismus. Zugleich ein Leitfaden, von der vegetarischen Reform hinweg zur wahren Menschheitsreform zu gelangen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1899. 24 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [dass.] 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 34 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 269] Grabowsky, Norbert: Blutreinigung und ihre Bedeutung für den Gesunden wie Kranken. Ein Reformbuch. Laien und Aerzten zubestimmt. 2. durchaus umgearbeitete Auflage des Werkes: Revolution unserer Nahrungsweise. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1900. 31 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [dass.] Mit einem Anhang: Ueber Geisteserneuerung (höhergeistiges Innenleben) und deren Wichtigkeit für die leibliche Gesundheit. 3. verbesserte Auflage. Leipzig; Max Spohr 1912. 30 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [zuerst:] Die Revolution unserer Nahrungsweise oder die Diät der Zukunft. Ein Reformbuch für Gesunde und Kranke, Laien und Aerzte. Zum ersten Male aufgestellt und begründet. Weimar: Grabowsky, Leipzig: Theodor Thomas 1896. 24 S. Lex.-8°.
  • [B 270] Grabowsky, Norbert: Wider den Tabak! Das Tabakrauchen und sein Einfluss auf die körperliche und geistige Entartung der modernen Menschheit. Zugleich mit positiven Vorschlägen, wie man es anfangen soll, sich der Tabaksleidenschaft zu entreissen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1900. 33, 8 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [dass.] 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 44 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 271] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Wissenschaft von Gott und Leben nach dem Tode. Erstmals seit den fünf Jahrtausenden menschlichen Geistesstrebens endgültig begründet. Ein Handbuch innerer Religion oder der Lehre vom wahren Grund und Zweck unseres Lebens, ohne das Beiwerk konfessioneller Dogmen. In allgemeinverständlicher Darstellung. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1900. 78, [8] S. gr. 8°. 1,20 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die Wissenschaft von Gott und Leben nach dem Tode. Ein Handbuch innerer Religion oder der Lehre vom wahren Grund und Zweck unseres Lebens, ohne die Grundlage konfessioneller Dogmen. 2. verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. In volkstümlicher Darstellung. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1908. 149, [2] S. 8°. 2,25 M, Lw. 2,75 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Die Wissenschaft von Gott und Leben nach dem Tode. Ein Buch der Höherentwicklung des Geisteslebens der Menschheit. Dritte umgearbeitete Auflage. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1914. VII, 159, [1], IV S. gr. 8°. 2,50 M.
    • [dass.] 4. Auflage [um 1916]
  • [B 272] Grabowsky, Norbert: Das Recht der geistigen Bahnbrecher der Menschheit auf materielle Förderung durch die Allgemeinheit. Ein bedeutsames Kapitel der sozialen Frage. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der neuen Aera sittlich-geistigen Lebens, herbeigeführt durch Grabowsky’s Entdeckungen und deren Aufnahme von Seiten der Zeitgenossen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1900. 23 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Mein Wirken als Reformator des Innenlebens der Menschheit. Zweite verbesserte Auflage von »Das Recht der geistigen Bahnbrecher usw.« Leipzig: Max Spohr 1906. 45, III S. 8°. 0,50 M, kart. 0,75 M.
  • [B 293] Grabowsky, Norbert: Bildung, was ist sie und wie wird sie gewonnen? Ein Handbuch der Selbsterziehung für Erwachsene aller Stände. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1902. 57S.gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
    • [Neuausgabe:] Wahre Bildung. Ein Handbuch innerlicher Höherentwicklung. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage der Schrift: Bildung, was ist sie und wie wird sie gewonnen? Leipzig: Max Spohr 1913. VII, 98, VI S. 1,50 M.
  • [B 304] Grabowsky, Norbert: Durch Entsagung und Vergeistigung zum jenseitigen Leben. Ein Führer für nach innerer Vervollkommnung Strebende. Volkstümlich dargestellt. Zweite verbesserte Auflage des »Volksbuch über die Kunst, glücklich zu werden«. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1903. 41, VII S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
    • [zuerst:] Volksbuch über die Kunst glücklich zu werden. Würzburg: (Kreßner) 1888. 80 S. 8°.
  • [B 316] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die ideale Ehe, wie muss sie beschaffen sein? Leipzig: Max Spohr 1904. 38 S. 8°. 0,50 M, kart. 0,75 M.
  • [B 317] Grabowsky, Norbert: Geistiges Familienleben. Zugleich eine Antwort auf die Frage: Welchen Unterrichts bedarf die nach echter Bildung strebende Familie unserer Zeit? Nebst einer Darlegung, wie Verfasser persönlich im Sinne der von ihm angebahnten Geistesreform zu wirken sucht. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1904. 27, V S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 330] Grabowsky, Norbert: Der Naturgenuss und sein Wesen. Ein Hilfsbüchlein für Freunde der schönen Natur, diese in tieferer Erkenntnis ihres Wesens zu geniessen. Nebst Bemerkungen über geistigen Gewinn aus dem Naturhässlichen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1905. 26 S. 8°. 0,50 S.
  • [B 331] Grabowsky, Norbert; Die Unendlichkeit unseres Lebens oder die höchsten Ziele des Menschen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1905. 42 S. 8°. 0,75 M.
  • [B 388] Grabowsky, Norbert: Kants Grundirrtümer in seiner Kritik der reinen Vernunft und die Reformation des geistigen Innenlebens der Menschheit, beruhend auf Dr. Norbert Grabowsky’s Erkenntnislehren. Volkstümlich dargestellt. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1907. VII, [1], 115, IV, [1] S. gr. 8°. 2,00 M, Lw. 2,50 M.
  • [B 434] Grabowsky, Norbert: Erkenntnis[,] das Bleibende im Wechsel der Zeiten. Ein Wegweiser des Menschen in seiner Entwicklung vom Außen- zum Innenleben. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 52, IV S. gr. 8°. 0,75 M.
  • [B 435] Grabowsky, Norbert: Der Innenmensch. Ein Schauspiel philosophischen Erkenntnisgehalts in zwei Aufzügen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 52 S. gr. 8°. 0,60 M.
  • [B 436] Grabowsky, Norbert: Unser ewiges Leben schon jetzt in uns. Ein Buch für innerlich Höherstrebende. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 58 S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
  • [B 437] Grabowsky, Norbert: Höhere Liebe. Ein Schauspiel philosophischen Erkenntnisgehalts in einem Aufzuge. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 20, IV S. gr. 8°. 0,40 M.
  • [B 438] Grabowsky, Norbert: Wie wird man ein geistig höherer Mensch oder wie gewinnt man höheren Lebensinhalt? Leipzig: Max Spohr 1909. 36 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 446] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Entdeckung der Wirklichkeit unserer geistigen Innenwelt. Eine Grosstat von weltbewegender Bedeutung für den geistigen Fortschritt der Menschheit. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1910. 40, VIII S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 447] Grabowsky, Norbert: Bühnenstücke philosophischer Erkenntnis, ein Höherstreben über die Welt des bisherigen Klassischen hinaus, und die Bedeutung der neuen Bühnenstücke für den geistigen Fortschritt der Menschheit. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1910. 38 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 448] Grabowsky, Norbert: Höchste Kunst und höchste Wissenschaft. Ein Schauspiel philosophischen Erkenntnisgehalts in zwei Aufzügen. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1910. 44 S. gr. 8°. 0,75 M.
  • [B 449] Grabowsky, Norbert: Segen der Einsamkeit. Ein Schauspiel philosophischen Erkenntnisgehaltes in einem Aufzuge. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1910. III, 27 S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 468] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die Anschauungen übersinnlicher Wirklichkeit oder unsere Welt der Ideen, die Grundlage der Gottes- und Jenseitserkenntnis. Volkstümlich dargestellt. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1911. 91, IV S. gr. 8°. 1,50 M.
  • [B 469] Grabowsky, Norbert: Privatbibliotheken volkstümlicher Werke philosophischer Erkenntnis und die außerordentliche Bedeutung solcher Bibliotheken für den Geistesfortschritt der Menschheit. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1911. [4], 35, IV S. gr. 8°. 0,50 M.
  • [B 519] Grabowsky, Norbert: Die kommenden Menschen höher-geistigen Lebens. Leipzig: Max Spohr 1916. VIII, 57, III S. gr. 8°. 1,00 M.
  • Grabowsky, Norbert: Licht im Dunkel. Die neue von Dr. Norbert Grabowsky begründete Geistesreformation. Eine bahnbrechende Schrift für alle, die zu höherer Innenentwicklung gelangen wollen. [Hrsg. von Ernst Täuber.] Ludwigslust: Vereinigung für die Herausgabe von Dr. N. Grabowsky’s Schriften; [aufgeklebt:] Leipzig: Verlag »Wahrheit« Ferdinand Spohr [in Kommission] 1936. 30 S. gr. 8°. 0,80 M.

further reading

  • Magnus Hirschfeld: Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes. 2., um ein Vorwort von Bernd-Ulrich Hergemöller ergänzte Neuauflage der Ausgabe von 1984. Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter 2001, p. 369.
    • English tranlsation: Magnus Hirschfeld: The Homosexuality of Men and Women. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash. Introduction by Vern L. Bollough. New York: Prometheus Books 2000, p. 428.
  • Iwan Bloch: Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit in seinen Beziehungen zur modernen Kultur. Zehnte bis zwölfte verbesserte Auflage. Berlin: Louis Marcus Verlagsbuchhandlung 1919, p. 696.
    • English translation: Iwan Bloch: The Sexual Life of Our Time in Its Relation to Modern Civilization. Translated from the sixth German edition by M. Eden Paul. London: Rebman 1909, p. 673.
  • Albert Eulenburg: „Nervenkrankheiten und Ehe“, in: Hermann Senator and Siegfried Kaminer (eds.): Krankheiten und Ehe. Darstellung der Beziehungen zwischen Gesundheits-Störungen und Ehegemeinschaft. München: J. F. Lehmann 1904, 594–641, pp. 597–598 / 2nd ed. Leipzig: Georg Thieme 1916, 748–797, pp. 751–753. (HathiTrust)
    • English translation: Albert Eulenburg: “Diseases of the Nervous System”, in: Hermann Senator and Siegfried Kaminer (eds.): Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage and the Married State. The only authorized translation from the German into the English language by J. Dulberg. Vol. II. New York / London: Rebman 1905, 873–941, pp. 877–879.
  • Hermann Rohleder: Vorlesungen über das gesamte Geschlechtsleben des Menschen. Bd. I: Das normale, anormale und paradoxe Geschlechtsleben. 4th ed. Berlin: Fischer’s medicinische Buchhandlung, H. Kornfeld 1920, pp. 66–67, 76, 101–102, 188–189. (HathiTrust = Google Books)
  • Wilhelm Waldschmidt: Die Unterdrückung der Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit und ihre Folgen für den Organismus. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke 1913, p. 12.
  • Wolf Lübbers & Christian W. Lübbers: “Das Elend des ärztlichen Berufes”, HNO Nachrichten 52/2 (2022), 67–70. doi:10.1007/s00060-021-7644-1.

I may work this into a Wikipedia article at some point, but I do not intend to spend too much time on Grabowsky because I am too busy with my other jobs, studies and projects (including my Kurnig project) – but perhaps someone else would like to take the lead this time?

originally posted on Reddit [2024-04-07]

A well-travelled Jesuit priest, a reclusive scholar, a convoluted defence of voluntary death, and a corpse in a river: The curious case of Johann Robeck (1672–1735)

LennyLeave a comment

Hello everyone.

I promised u/existentialgoof to write a post about Johann Robeck, one of the most intriguing, and most influential, figures in the history of suicide. Here we go.

Introduction

Perhaps you have come across his name before. You might remember this passage from part 3 of Al Alvarez’s The Savage God: A Study of Suicide (1973; pp. 143–144 in my 2002 paperback edition):

First and most important, suicide is a closed world with its own irresistible logic. This is not to say that people commit suicide, as the Stoics did, coolly, deliberately, as a rational choice between rational alternatives. The Romans may have disciplined themselves into accepting this frigid logic but those who have done so in modern history are, in the last analysis, monsters. And like all monsters, they are hard to find. In 1735 John Robeck, a Swedish philosopher, completed a long Stoic defence of suicide as a just, right and desirable act; he then carefully put his principles into practice by giving away his property and drowning himself in the Weser. His death was the sensation of the day. It provoked Voltaire to comment, through one of the characters in Candide: ‘I have seen a prodigious number of people who hold their existence in execration; but I have only seen a dozen who voluntarily put an end to their misery, three negroes, four Englishmen, four Genevois, and a German professor called Robeck.’ Even for Voltaire, the supreme rationalist, a purely rational suicide was something prodigious and slightly grotesque.

The words quoted can be found in chapter 12 of Voltaire’s Candide, ou l’optimisme (Œuvres complètes de Voltaire, vol 48, p. 162), they are spoken by an old woman who, in spite of her pessimistic outlook on life and all the suffering she had to endure, clings to life.

Johann Robeck, his work and his fate are also mentioned in Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Julie, ou la Nouvelle Héloïse, III, 21 (tr. Kenrick, pp. 159, 169):

You would have me apply to the test of reason: I will; let us reason. You desire me to deliberate in proportion to the importance of the question in debate; I agree to it. Let us investigate truth with temper and moderation; let us discuss this general proposition with the same indifference we should treat any other. Roebeck wrote an apology for suicide before he put an end end to his life. I will not, after his example, write a book on the subject, neither am I well satisfied with that which he has penned, but I hope in this discussion at least to imitate his moderation.

[…]

A strange letter this for the discussion of such a subject! Do men argue so coolly on a question of this nature, when they examine it on their own accounts? Is the letter a forgery, or does the author reason only with an intent to be refuted? What makes our opinion in this particular dubious, is the example of Robeck, which he cites, and which seems to warrant his own. Robeck deliberated so gravely, that he had patience to write a book, a large, voluminous, weighty, and dispassionate book; and when he had concluded, according to his principles, that it was lawful to put an end to our being, he destroyed himself with the same composure that he wrote. Let us beware of the prejudices of the times, and of particular countries. When suicide is out of fashion, we conclude that none but madmen destroy themselves; all the efforts of courage appear chimerical to dastardly minds; every one judges of others by himself. Nevertheless, how many instances are there, well attested, of men, in every other respect perfectly discreet, who, without remorse, rage, or despair, have quitted life for no other reason than because it was a burthen to them, and have died with more composure than they lived.

So, who is this guy, this early advocate of a right to die, this shining example of rational suicide? Let me tell you: Most information you can find on him, both in printed publications and on the internet (including the English Wikipedia entry), is very unreliable. (People can’t even get his name and his year of death right…) Was he German or Swedish? What was his profession? And, most importantly, what did he actually have to say about suicide?

I have done a lot of research on him, and I’ve got to set a few things straight here. Let me start with a brief overview of his life.

Biography

Johan(n) Robeck (note: some Swedish sources give his name as Jonas) was born in Kalmar, Sweden, on September 13, 1672, in a distinguished and respectable family: His father, Matt(h)ias Robeck, was the mayor of the town. He enjoyed a good upbringing, and his exceptional talents didn’t go unnoticed. He studied theology and philosophy for ten years at the university of Uppsala, Sweden. He wrote a philosophical dissertation, which he sought to defend, but, for reasons unknown, he was not permitted to do so. Frustrated, he left his native Sweden and went to Germany.

Robeck converted to Catholicism in Hildesheim, Germany, and joined the Jesuit order in 1705. He became a priest and rose to pretty high ranks, and he spent the next three decades carrying out various missions throughout Europe for the Jesuit order and the Catholic church, eventually settling in 1727 near my hometown of Hamburg, Germany. He did not, however, return to Sweden.

In 1734, Robeck left the Jesuit order and came to the town of Rinteln, Germany, in order to devote himself to his studies, especially of the Stoics, at the local university (which, by the way, closed in 1810) under Professor Johann Nicolaus Funck (1698–1778). During this time, he buried himself in his books, became a recluse, and rarely even left his room. After spending a year in Rinteln, Robeck wrote a letter to Funck, announcing he was going to undertake a final journey, citing health reasons (“an excess of black bile”). He donated most of his books and manuscripts and some money to the library and gave away most of his possessions, and, though they had not been very close, he tasked Funck with publishing one of his works and sent him the money for the printing expenses. Thus, Robeck set out for Bremen, Germany, taking only a modest suitcase with a couple of personal belongings with him. But once he arrived in Bremen, on June 17, 1735, he sent those back to Funck and, in a final letter, advised him to give them to the poor.

Then Robeck reportedly, wearing his finest clothes, rented a small boat, and, to the dismay of the bystanders, departed from the shore alone. Three days later, his corpse was found in the river Weser, about three miles from the city, and buried in a nearby village.

Upon receiving these news, Funck decided to print what would be Robeck’s famous defence of suicide. Funck was confronted with the difficult task of editing the controversial work of an esteemed colleague he fundamentally disagreed with, but, fulfilling his wish, he added an index, as well as a 52-page preface and a lot of annotations, which often take up most of the page, to try to refute Robeck’s arguments. The book was published in the following year.

  • Iohannis Robeck Calmaria–Suedi exercitatio philosophica de εὐλόγῳ ἐξαγωγῇ, sive morte voluntaria philosophorum et bonorum virorum, etiam Iudaeorum et Christianorum. Recensuit, perpetuis animadversionibus notavit, praefatus est et indicem rerum locupletissimum addidit Ioh. Nicolaus Funccius Marburgensis. Rintelii 1736. (LII + 319 + 20 pp.) (Scan)

Funck’s preface includes a biographical section (pp. I–X), also quoting Robeck’s letters, and this is probably the only reliable primary source we have on Robeck’s biography.

Some 17 years later, in 1753, Funck edited another one of Robeck’s manuscripts. This was, essentially, the second part of his treatise – not just a new edition with a different title, as this biography claims. Again, Funck added an index and a lot of annotations as well as an essay on the causes of suicide.

  • Iohannis Robeck Calmaria–Suedi de morte voluntaria exercitatio, sive examen calumniarum, nugarum et fallaciarum, quibus tanquam argumentis utuntur εὐλόγου ἐξαγωγῆς consensus generis humani, salutis et gloriae bonorum virorum honestarumque feminarum hostes et oppugnatores. Perpetuis animadversionibus notavit, praefatus est et indicem rerum addidit Iohannes Nicolaus Funccius Marburgensis. Marburgi 1753. (36 + 384 + 16 pp.) (Scan 1, Scan 2)

Let us now take a look at the work itself.

Part I

After some preliminary reflections and discussions, Robeck presents twelve arguments for the moral permissibility of voluntary death. I will attempt to give a brief outline of these here:

  1. [pp. 101–102] The utter weakness and ridiculousness of his opponents’ arguments.
  2. [pp. 102–123] There is no actual law that obliges us to love life so much that we may under no circumstances end it. A love for the good is innate in us, but it is not the cardinal rule of our actions. Instincts themselves do not yet constitute a law; laws are usually contrary to instincts. We are endowed with reason to control our animal nature. Self-love is older and stronger than what could be prescribed by law, and therefore, such a law would be redundant. The love of bodily life is the source of all sins and vices. — The commandment to love our neighbours as ourselves does not actually command self-love, which is presupposed and only serves as some kind of benchmark. Self-love even remains in those who choose voluntary death, some people even killed themselves out of self-love. Christ declares only the love of God and the love of neighbour to be the most important commandments, not the love of oneself, and only by virtue of the other two, self-love becomes reasonable. As with vice, sad consequences are connected to the act of committing suicide, but, likewise, also with not committing suicide.
  3. [pp. 124–138] Unlike with animals, the love of life is not the primary driving force for thoughts, decisions and deliberate acts, and not the aim which they are, or should be, directed at. It is merely subordinate to the “main love” of happiness (εὐδαιμονία), and this type of love is peculiar to rational beings. We do not love happiness for the sake of life, but we love life as a means to achieve the supreme good of happiness. Thus, if life is only a means of unhappiness, it is not worth preserving. If we are allowed, in many cases, to kill others, why not ourselves?
  4. [pp. 139–142] The body itself has very little value, it only receives its value through its use, and it is preserved for this reason alone. If it becomes harmful and corrupted, it may be disposed of and destroyed, like other things of this kind; it would perish anyway after a short time due to its perishable nature.
  5. [pp. 143–156] Though philosophers have come to different conclusions about the soul, life and its purpose, nevertheless, according to all it is permissible to take one’s own life for “just and necessary” reasons. Regardless of whether the soul is simple or complex, immortal or mortal, it is always the highest and most excellent good. (Remember, guys: Главное это душа!) The body, when compared to the soul, is inferior and merely a tool, and often a useless one, often a hindrance, burden, fetters, and pain. If the soul, too, is material and mortal, then it is foolish for one, when a painful and shameful death is imminent, not to choose an easy and honourable one; if the soul is immaterial and immortal, then it is not necessary to choose a death with long agonies rather than a milder and shorter one. Likewise, it is not necessary to let oneself be abused and then killed rather than dying without disgrace by one’s own hand. Regarding the highest good, all philosophers agree that it is not life itself, but something else, for example, virtue (perfected reason), the absence of pain, etc.
  6. [pp. 157–164] When benefits stop being beneficial, and when they start being useless, harmful and painful, and when you can barely keep them without losing virtue, then it does not make sense to force someone to keep those, or prevent them from disposing of those. God is not such a tyrant. We should, in fact, ask ourselves the question if death is, perhaps, even preferable to life as it is; many wise authors, both Christian and Pagan, have expressed a preference for death.
  7. [pp. 164–166] Whatever can be said against voluntary death, could also be said against self-defense, that is, defending one’s life, one’s chastity, or one’s property by killing an attacker. This kind of self-defence also seems to be inconsistent with the commandments not to kill, to love one’s neighbour as oneself, to lay down one’s life for others, to resist injustice, to regard God as the master of life, to expel no one from the ‘station of life’, etc.
  8. [pp. 167–170] In certain cases, killing oneself is in accordance with perfect reason, which is above all laws and all human authority, which judges good and evil, which is in accordance with both Nature and itself immutable, and which deserves no less respect and authority than the Holy Scripture, and more obedience than the orders of the powers that be, as it is the highest good humans can act on. It does not, however, demand that humans, under all circumstances, including the most horrible ones, continue living, as the previous arguments and refutations have shown.
  9. [pp. 171–178] Voluntary death is the protection of natural laws, of virtues and of duties, a pillar of freedom, tranquillity, and happiness, as far as these are attainable, and master over necessity; it dismantles the excuses of shamefulness, it reveals the effects of superstition, cowardice, and excessive love of life, all of which try to hide themselves.
  10. [pp. 178–300] There are countless examples among all peoples (Greeks, Romans, Asians, and Africans) that, through their expressed opinions, customs, and institutions, approve of such a death. There is no nation among which it would be considered forbidden to kill oneself without harm to others, for a good, just, important, and necessary cause. If anything, those who did it, are seen as great, useful, and honourable examples of a brave soul that despises life and death, while those who allowed themselves to suffer most shameful things are seen as degenerate and cowardly.
  11. [pp. 301–306] If one is not allowed to end one’s life if there is a good reason to do so, then the use of life, wisdom, and virtue would be significantly reduced, if not eliminated altogether. One would have to abandon oneself to the wantonness and abuse of the fools and the wicked.
  12. [pp. 307–319] The option of voluntary death is, for a wise and brave person, a strong motivation for excellent deeds; life, if you are required to keep it no matter what, is a hindrance for such deeds. Superstitious and cowardly people will, with their words, sayings, pretenses, interpretations, and threats, never be able to overcome the common human nature; and those that have a shameful and sorrowful life ahead of them, the end of which they must expect, but not bring about themselves, will not, by themselves, refuse the option of voluntary death, unless the means are taken away from them. For example, Samson’s most glorious deed was his final one, which overshadows all other actions in his life, as the Holy Scripture makes clear by stating that, in his death, he has killed more enemies than in his life. If you take voluntary death away, then all of that last glory of Samson, the enemies’ death and sorrow, the friends’ joy, and the welfare of the fatherland would be taken away along with it.

Part II

In this treatise, Robeck focusses on refuting common objections and counter-arguments made by those who deny that there is voluntary death is, or can be, morally permissible – in particular Lactantius, Augustine, Lipsius, and Rachelius. However, at the end of the work (pp. 378–379), Robeck also explains in which cases he believes suicide is not permissible:

Addo demum et adversariis concedo, atque severius etiam, quam ipsi, damno necem non sui modo, sed et aliorum, imo vel pecudis, si temere, inconsulte, promiscue, ex ira, odio, furore, crudelitate et quocunque vitio, malove impetu vel affectu fiat. […] Damno etiam, si quis se vel educat, vel occidat, dum Deo, patriae, civibus, proximis utiliter servire potest: praesertim sine intolerabili, aut graviore tormento sui. Confiteor hunc talem peccare, facereque aliquam quasi iniuriam Deo, et illis quibus prodesse posset vivus. Quod si nihil aliud velint urgeantque adversarii, lis omnis est finita; imo nulla ab initio fuit.

“Finally, I add and concede to my opponents, and, even more harshly than they themselves, I condemn murder not only of oneself, but also of others, indeed, even of cattle, if it is done without good cause, without due care and consideration, without distinction, out of anger, hate, rage, cruelty, and any vice, or bad impulse or passion. […] I also condemn, if someone ‘releases’, or kills, themself, while they can still serve God, their fatherland, fellow citizens, and close ones in a useful way: especially (if it happens) without unbearable or greater torment. I admit: Such a one sins and commits some kind of injustice against God and those to whom they could be of use while they were alive. Therefore, if my opponents want and press nothing else, then the whole debate is settled, in fact, there has never been one from the start.” (my own translation)

Conclusion

Johann Robeck may have been an odd person, but he was an extremely learned man. He dedicated most of his life to his extensive philosophical and theological studies and was held in high regard by his peers. He was not shy to show his vast knowledge and erudition, and he often cites passages from Christian, Greek and Roman authors as well as from contemporary scholars. Robeck draws a lot on Stoic philosophy, especially on Seneca’s 70th epistle. Some, as we have seen, describe his style as cold and rational, others as impassionated or even enthusiastic, and, of course, his own biases shine through here and there. It is true that the structure of the work seems somewhat convoluted at times. But one thing is for sure: He was very serious about the subject and his position, and even his most vehement critics praised the elegance of his Latin and his level of erudition.

Robeck’s work was a major contribution to the discussion of the ethics of suicide in the age of Enlightenment. Before him, there had been, for example, John Donne (1572–1631), who had already written an infamous book entitled Βιαθάνατος [Biathanatos]: A Declaration of that Paradox, or Thesis, that Self-homicide is not so Naturally Sin, that it may never be otherwise. Wherein the Nature, and the extent of all those Laws, which seem to be violated by this Act, are diligently surveyed, which was published posthumously in 1648, some 40 years after its composition, and offered an attempt to “descandalize” the phenomenon of suicide. Remarkably, Donne himself confessed: “I have often such a sickly inclination”. A few years after Robeck, perhaps following in his footsteps, David Hume (1711–1776) wrote his influential essay “On Suicide” (1755).

I believe Robeck’s work is definitely worth reading and deserves to reach a wider audience. Unfortunately, it is written entirely in Latin – but, fortunately, I am fluent in Latin. I have already transcribed both books, save for Funck’s annotations, which took me a couple of months. I am currently proof-reading the whole thing and looking for a way to adapt his 18th century orthography and formatting to somewhat more readable standards. Once that is done, I am thinking about translating the work into English. This will require even more time and effort than my Kurnig project, but please let me know if you’re interested, or if you would like to help.

Edit: Here is my work in progress file of the Latin text.

Thank you for reading.

originally posted on Reddit [2022-12-01]

The “Holy Grail” of modern Antinatalism unearthed: scans & electronic text of Kurnig’s “Neo-Nihilismus”

Lenny2 Comments

Hello everyone.

If you’ve read the History of Antinatalism volume edited by Kateřina Lochmanová, or listened to the “Exploring Antinatalism Podcast”, you’ve probably heard the name Kurnig – a pseudonym used by a mysterious, hitherto unknown author, who might very well be regarded as the first antinatalist in the modern sense of the word, having written an entire book – in German – about this ideology, for which he coined the (to modern readers, slightly misleading) term “neo-nihilism”. (“Modern” as in non-metaphysical, and with the expressed goal of human extinction.) His Neo-Nihilismus is a pamphlet comprised of a collection of essays, dialogues, fragments, poems, and quotes, in which he takes Schoperhauer’s philosophy one step further and strongly argues that we, as a race, should cease procreation and go extinct in order to minimize suffering in the world, while also touching on a variety of topics such as religion, anthropology, geology, military policy, education, and sexology.

Karim Akerma, the distinguished antinatalist philosopher from my hometown of Hamburg, Germany, contributed an entire chapter in the aforementioned History of Antinatalism volume about Kurnig and his philosophy (pp. 125–145) and has published a number of articles on Kurnig:

Akerma writes: “In discussions on the internet Zapffe’s voluminous book Om det tragiske (“On the Tragic”) is sometimes heralded as antinatalism’s yet unexploited Holy Grail. Upon closer inspection, however, the book contains but a few truly antinatalistic statements.” (Karim Akerma: “Kurnig and His Neo-Nihilism: The First Modern Antinatalist”, in: Kateřina Lochmanová (ed.): History of Antinatalism: How Philosophy Has Challenged the Question of Procreation, 2020, 125–145, p. 128.)

But could we, perhaps, apply this term to Kurnig’s work?

Akerma also discusses his remarkable discovery and the traces this elusive thinker has left in late 19th and early 20th century Europe as well as the difficulties in obtaining a copy of Kurnig’s book with Amanda Sukenick on the 18th episode of the “Exploring Antinatalism Podcast” (1:08:12–1:18:32).

Unfortunately, very few copies have survived two world wars and a Nazi dictatorship since Kurnig’s Neo-Nihilismus had been published some 120 years ago (and not reprinted since), and the ones that have are very difficult to access, even for scholars. It can’t be stressed enough how obscure this book is: not only was it published under a pseudonym (actually, Kurnig had used a variety of other pseudonyms earlier), but in the second edition, published by Max Spohr of Leipzig, the indication of the publishing house had to be physically removed from the book, either blackened out or cut out, most probably for fear of persecution. Moreover, it’s written in Fraktur, a type of blackletter script which was common back then, but even Germans may have some trouble reading it today.

At 1:17:09 into the interview, Amanda Sukenick (AS) asks Karim Akerma (KA):

AS: “So, this might be kind of an odd question, but do you know what the current copyright status of his book is, “Neo-Nihilism”? Do you think it might be possible that we could try to petition for some sort of reprint? ‘Cause I want to read it!”
KA: “We definitely could, according to German, to European law, I think, – I don’t know, I’m not quite sure – since his book appeared more than a hundred years ago, there will be no copyright. What we have to do is to get a clean copy, and somebody would have to transcribe the gothic script into Roman letters. I could do that, but it would be very time-consuming, I can tell you.”
AS: “Of course. All right, well, maybe in the distant future a project to look forward to.”
KA: “Yes. And once we have a clean copy, the translation process would be easy, because his German is simple, he doesn’t use many technical terms, it’s very simple German which can be understood by everybody.”

Well, I guess, someone had to do it. I happen to be a student at Karim Akerma’s Alma Mater, the University of Hamburg, and there are actually two copies of Kurnig’s book in Hamburg: one in the library of our university’s medical faculty, and one in some Catholic institute’s library.

First, I went to the medical library, and, since I’m not a student of medicine (but of classical philology), I was lucky to have the librarians retrieve it for me from the dark corners of the medical library’s archives that same day and let me use their precious copy of the VIII + 192-page, expanded second edition of Kurnig’s which, however, maybe due to its old age, maybe to the controversial nature of its subject, I wasn’t allowed to take home, but could only use at the library under the librarians’ supervision. Fortunately, there was a book scanner available there, so I scanned the entirety of the book. You can find a PDF file of the scan here. Note the deletion of the publisher on the first couple of pages. However, I must apologize, as this was the first time I used this brand-new scanning device, some pages may look a bit weird due to the automatic page recognition and finger removal function, and I didn’t have the time to scan the whole book another time before the librarians demanded it back, but I made double sure that all of the text is included and readable. Maybe not the “cleanest” copy imaginable, but there you go.

Then, I went to this Catholic institute’s library, which, for some reason, is only open for three hours a day. In order to borrow books from this library, I first had to get a library card of this library, which, fortunately, I got without any fees or difficulties, even though I am not Catholic and in no way associated with this institute. So I was handed their copy of Kurnig’s book, which was actually a xerox photocopy in A4 horizontal format of another copy of the 1903 edition published by Max Sängewald in Leipzig. It includes all of the contents of the edition mentioned above (VIII + 192 pages), plus a 32-page appendix, curiously, not written in Fraktur. In the first part of the appendix, Kurnig replies to the criticism he received in a number of journals and often pokes fun at the indignation and ignorance of his critics (that’s how they did it back in the day, when there was no social media!). The second part is a chapter entitled “Geogenie”, a poem about the nature of the world. I spent the rest of the day driving through town and experimenting with various scanning devices, until I managed to create what I would call a flawless scan of this subpar xerox copy. Here it is. So, this time, if the pages look a bit weird (e.g. pp. 192–193), I can assure you, that’s just how it is printed in the copy I got. Sometimes, the page numbers seem to be cut off, but all of the text is readable.

I then proceeded to transcribe the whole thing. (Well, someone had to do that, too.) Unfortunately, optical character recognition (OCR) software was of little to no use here, even with the Fraktur script expansions installed, so I had to type up those 200 pages manually in MS Word, which took me a couple of weeks. I tried to stay as faithful as possible to the original text and its orthographic conventions, its punctuation etc. (some of which is considered outdated today), but I made sure I included the original page and note numeration so that you can cite the text without having to get a (physical or digital) copy of the original Fraktur version. As Fraktur is mainly reserved for German text, but French and Latin words, for example, are rendered in a different typeface, I indicated this change of fonts using italics. I myself used only one font (Times New Roman) throughout the text.

Other than that, the quotation section (entitled “Der Pessimismus der Anderen”) got a major overhaul: The quotes themselves are, of course, left untouched, but for the sake of transparency, I added or corrected the sources to the best of my knowledge and ability, and where Kurnig’s sources list the original version or other translations, I added those as well.

The few minor changes I made (mainly printing errors that needed to be fixed), are indicated in the Transcriber’s Notes. Moreover, I added hyperlinks to the quotations of passages of Schopenhauer’s Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung and a couple of other works and added lots of cross-references for your convenience, so you can just click on the page number Kurnig refers to.

So, without further ado, here‘s my electronic text of Kurnig’s Neo-Nihilismus.

However, I feel I should add that this is not yet the final version, as a couple of things are still waiting to be fixed:

  • First, if there’s anyone willing to help proof-read and correct the electronic text, your help will be greatly appreciated, so please let me know if you come across any errors or inconsistencies, no matter how small or insignificant, as I am sure that, despite every care and effort, there are still a couple of those left. I am open to all kind of feedback and criticism, and if you have any questions about the work itself or the transcription process, feel free to ask.
  • Many errors spotted by u/SiegyDiFridely, which now are fixed in the current version!
  • Second, you may notice three illustrations that can be found in the scans but are missing in the electronic text: fig. 1 on p. III; fig. 2 on p. 11; fig. 3 on p. 31*. This is because I was unable to extract and convert them to into decent black-and-white images (like the ones you find in the Project Gutenberg e-books, for example). Maybe someone who has some skill and experience with image editing can help out? Here I uploaded the images in question from the numerous scans I made. Once we have a good digital version of these, I will gladly include them in the next, updated version.
  • Images edited by the amazing u/WackyConundrum can now be found in the current version!

That being said, you are, of course, free to use it as you like. Repost it, publish it on your websites, in your journals, wherever you want, if you want to spread Kurnig’s “propaganda of non-propagation” and want it to be reliably preserved and readily accessible for (hopefully not so many) future generations as well. The scans and my transcript can be found here.

As Karim Akerma has correctly pointed out, Kurnig’s literary style is, for the most part, rather simple (when compared to the likes of, say, E. M. Cioran or the highly recommended, but in the English-speaking world virtually unknown, literary scholar and radical pessimist thinker Ulrich Horstmann) and even today, some 120 years later, quite easy to understand, so it shouldn’t be too hard to translate. In fact, large parts of Kurnig’s work consist of extensive quotations from works that have already been translated into English and other languages, such as the works of Erasmus, G. Leopardi, A. Schopenhauer, D. F. Strauß, and R. von Krafft-Ebing. Lots of quotations from Kurnig’s own work translated into English can be found in the articles by Karim Akerma linked above, so this should give you an impression of what to expect. Maybe you could start a fundraiser or make it a collaborative effort? (Due to the now, at places, somewhat obsolete early 20th century orthography, translation tools may or may not work well here, but see for yourselves.)

edit: Thank you very much for your response! This has motivated me to start the English translation process. Feel free to get in touch if you want to contribute.

Meanwhile, u/VomKriege is working on a Spanish translation of Kurnig’s book. Feel free to send a PM if you want to help!

At the time I’m writing this, Dr Karim Akerma and myself might very well be the only two people living today that have read the entire book by Kurnig. But, hopefully, this will change very soon! It is about time this well-kept secret is once more unleashed to the rest of the world. Consider this my contribution to both the antinatalist cause and the scholarship on early modern antinatalist thought.

Thank you for reading.

TL;DR: I created scans of a much-requested work of early modern antinatalism (scan #1, scan #2), then typed up and formatted the whole thing for your convenience and in order to facilitate the translation process, which has already started.

You can find all files mentioned in this post – and more – here: https://archive.org/search?query=creator%3A%22Kurnig%22

This link may also be useful in the future when the first versions of the electronic German text and the English translation are replaced with updated versions.

Current version: v. 1.3 – 2024-03-11

originally posted on Reddit [2022-08-01]

Also check out this video: Kurnig – The First Modern Antinatalist | Karim Akerma & Lenny